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Both diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased. Consequently, the output across RL is zero. Assume diodes D1 and D2 to have forward biased voltage drop equal to 0. That is, voltage at non-inverting input is more positive with respect to voltage at inverting input. When the switch SW-1 is in position-B, voltage appearing at non-inverting input is That is, voltage at non-inverting input is more negative with respect to voltage at inverting input. Example Determine the lower and upper trip points of the comparator and also draw the output-voltage Vo versus input-voltage Vi transfer characteristics.

Transfer characteristics are shown in figure Also, filters can be classified depending on their order like first-order and second-order. Order of an active filter is determined by number of RC sections used in the filter. Therefore, applied input signal appears at the output mostly unattenuated. Thus, forcing the output to be near zero. Here is how the high-pass filter works Figure Case 1: Non-Inverting Filter with gain Figure It offers a relatively flat pass and stop band response.

These filters are simple to design and offer large bandwidth. As a result, the input signal is prevented from reaching the output. At some intermediate band of frequencies, the gain provided by the circuit offsets the loss due to potential divider R1-R3. These filters are simple to design and have a broad reject frequency range. It uses a twin-T network that is connected in series with the non-inverting input of the opamp.

Intermediate band of frequencies pass through both the filters, net signal reaching the non- inverting input and hence the output is zero. Determine the cut-off frequency and the gain value at four times the cut-off frequency.

Specify the small-signal bandwidth of the chosen opamp if the highest expected frequency were 1 MHz. For example, the gain may be very large for weak input signals and very small for large input signals.

This implies that for a very large change in the amplitude of input signal, resultant change in amplitude of output signal is very small. Resistance R1 decides the compression ratio. Higher the value of resistor R1, lesser is the compression ratio. In order to achieve null, the output is usually applied to an AC milli voltmeter. If the bridge output is applied to the non-linear amplifier, the output of the non linear amplifier will vary only in a small range.

It produces a non-sinusoidal output whose time period is dependent on the charging time of a capacitor. The capacitor is connected as a part of the oscillator circuit. Here is how it works Figure As a result, voltage at non-inverting input of opamp is This forces the output to stay in positive saturation as the capacitor C is initially in fully discharged state. The moment the capacitor voltage exceeds the voltage appearing at the non-inverting input, the output switches to VSAT.

The voltage appearing at non-inverting input also changes to The capacitor starts discharging after reaching zero, it begins to discharge towards VSAT. The cycle repeats thereafter. The output is a rectangular wave. The expression for time period of output waveform can be derived from the exponential charging and discharging process and is given by Figure Opamp wired as transimpedence amplifier very closely approaches a perfect current-to-voltage converter.

An ideal transconductance amplifier makes a perfect voltage-controlled current source or a voltage- to-current converter. Opamp wired as transconductance amplifier very closely approaches a perfect voltage-to-current converter.

Logic gates are the fundamental building blocks of digital systems. By connecting the different gates in different ways, we can build circuits that perform arithmetic and other functions associated with the human brain. The inter-connection of gates to perform a variety of logical operations is called logic design. The operation of a logic gate can be easily understood with the help of "truth table". A truth table lists all possible combinations of inputs and the corresponding outputs.

For example, if you only need one inverter, you can connect an input signal to pin 1 and take the output signal from pin 2. What does the voltage waveform at pin 2 look like? B The '. What is the Boolean equation for the output of Fig. The other gates have fewer configurations, with the OR gate available only in 2-input form. Table 2. So, we can convert table 2. If there is no bubble, you assert the input by making it high. This is called as Assertion level.

It means that you draw chips with the kind of input that causes something to happen, or with the kind of output that indicates something has happened. If a low input signal turns on a chip, you show a bubble on that input. If a low output is a sign of chip action, you draw a bubble on that output.

Once you get used to assertion-level logic, you may prefer drawing logic circuits this way. What happens when the inputs are asserted? An input is asserted when it is active. This means it may be low or high, depending on whether it is an active-low or active-high input. In short, you can equate the word assert with activate. You assert, or activate, the inputs of a gate or device to get something to happen. Advantages of HDL 1 To describe large complex design requiring hundreds of logic gates in a convenient manner.

Verilog is considered simpler of the two and is more popular. In a digital circuit, there are a set of inputs and a set of outputs which are called as ports. Module describes a design-entity with a name or identifier selected by user here, testckt followed by input-output port-list. The module-body describes the logic within the black box which acts on the inputs a, b, c and generates output x, y.

Semicolon ';' is used to indicate end the statement. Each model has its own advantage and suited for certain kind of design. The test bench creates an input in the form of a timing waveform and passes this to OR gate module through a function or procedural call.

The keyword 'reg' is used to hold value of a data object in a procedural assignment. The keyword 'initial' ensures sequential execution of codes following it, but once. The keyword 'always' is used for sequential execution but for infinite time. Execution of above Verilog code generates following timing diagram.

Product-terms are represented as follows Table: 3. Example: For 2 variable, there are 4 minterms. For 3 variable, there are 8 minterms Table: 3. Each product-term is called minterm. For example, A. D etc Here, we have to locate output 1 in the truth table and write down the minterm. The corresponding minterm is AB'C. The corresponding minterm is ABC. To get the sum of products equation, we have to OR the minterms. OR operation This kind of representation of a truth table is also known as canonical sum form.

The logic circuit for Y is shown in Figure: 3. What is the sum-of-products circuit? Figure 3. In Table 3. The minterm for this input condition is AB'. So, enter 1 into cell of kmap identified by row A and column B'.

This is done separately noting how an input variable is related to the output variable. This reduces the kmap size by 1 degree.

This technique is particularly useful for mapping problems with more than 4 input variables. Entered variable map for Table: 3. It eliminates one variable and its complement Figure: 3. Quad means four horizontal, vertical, or rectangular 1s on a Kmap.

It eliminates 2 variables and their complements Figure: 3. Octet means eight adjacent 1s in a 2 x 4 shape on a Kmap. It eliminates three variables and their complements Figure: 3.

In Figure 3. That is, use the 1s more than once to get the largest groups you can. Rolling the Map Figure 3. If you are visualizing correctly, you will realize the two pairs actually form a quad. You can eliminate any redundant group. This is a group whose 1s are already used by other groups. Enter 0s elsewhere. Next, the product-term representing each group is obtained by including map entered variable in the group as an additional ANDed term.

Here, Group-1 gives B. Since the condition never occurs, you can use an X on the Kmap Table: 3. This X can be a 0 or a 1, whichever you prefer Figure: 3. Each sum-term is called maxterm.

To get the product-of-sums equation, we have to AND the maxterms. M6 where maxterm is denoted by Mi. AND operation This kind of representation of a truth table is also known as canonical product form. This is known are conversion between canonical forms. If all other outputs are high, what is the product-of-sums circuit? It does not have the limitations of Kmap.

This method involves preparation of 2 tables: one determines prime implicants and other selects essential prince implicants to get minimal expression.

Prince implicants are expressions with least number of literals that represents all the terms given in a truth table. Prime implicants are examined to get essential prime implicants for a particular expression that avoids any type of duplication.

Essential prime implicants are similar to prince implicants but does not contain duplicate expressions. Stage 1 i We find out all the terms that gives output 1 from truth table Table 3. For example, First group has no 1 in input combination.

Second group has only one 1. Third group has two 1s. Fourth group has three 1s. Fifth group has four 1s. Stage 2 i We first try to combine first and second group of stage 1, on a member to member basis. Stage 3 i We combine members of different groups of stage 2 in a similar way. This completes process of determination of prime implicants.

The cross-point of a row and column is ticked if the term is covered by corresponding prime implicant. Thus, the corresponding cross-points are ticked. This way we complete the table for rest of the terms. Table: 3. So, one of them has to be included in the list of essential prime implicants making it three. And the simplified representation of truth table given in Table3. The hazards cause the circuit to malfunction.

The main cause of hazards is the different propagation delays at different paths. But the NOT gate output takes finite time to become 1 following 10 transition of A. Thus for OR gate, there are 2 zeros appearing at its input for the small duration, resulting a 0 at its output. The width of this zero is in nanosecond order and is called a glitch.

In combinational circuits, static-1 hazard may not cause any serious problem. But in sequential circuit, static-1 hazard may cause major malfunctioning. The corresponding circuit is shown in Fig. When C makes a transition 10, there will be static-1 hazard occurring at output. Example for circuit with hazard cover Consider another grouping for the Kmap in Fig. This circuit is hazard free. This circuit requires more hardware than minimal representation.

A 10 transition at C does not affect output. A makes a transition But the NOT gate output takes finite time to become 0 following 01 transition of A. Thus for AND gate, there are 2 ones appearing at its input for the small duration, resulting a 1 at its output. A 01 transition at C does not affect output. A kind of relations for certain combinations of the other input variables.

By providing covers to each one of them, dynamic hazard can be prevented. Set of operators is given in Table 3. All 'assign' statements are concurrent i. We do not explicitly need to define any gate structure using nand, nor etc. We do not use intermediate variables through wire. The compiler takes care of this. Write a verilog code for following circuit using dataflow modeling. It is ideally suited to describe a sequential logic circuit.

It always uses keyword 'always' followed by a sensitivity-list. Unlike wire, 'reg' is not continuously updated but 'reg is updated only after a new value is assigned to it. Write a verilog code for following circuit using behavioral modeling. For the SUM output? By applying control-signals, we can steer any input to output. Thus, it is also called a data-selector and control-inputs are called select inputs.

Figure 4. The STROBE is called an active-low signal; because it causes something to happen when it is low rather than when it is high. On the other hand, a high on strobe disables the mux and forces the output into the high state. With a high on strobe, the value of ABCD doesn't matter.

The third method is the multiplexer solution. For example to use a to implement Table 4. Since D1 is high, Y is low. Since D2 is low, Y is high. Thank you for visiting my thread. Hope this post is helpful to you. Have a great day! Kindly share this post with your friends to make this exclusive release more useful. Notify me of follow-up comments by email.

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