Introduction to psychology notes pdf download

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Psychology Questions and Answers. Google Ads. Facebook Ads. Instagram Marketing. Social Media. Email Marketing. Content Marketing. Clickbank Affiliate Marketing. Affiliate Marketing. Excel Data Analysis. Google Tag Manager. Google Analytics. You will no longer reinforce the previously reinforced response. Shaping is often used in teaching a complex behavior or chain of behaviors.

These kinds of reinforcers are not learned. Water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, and touch, among others, are primary reinforcers. Pleasure is also a primary reinforcer. Praise, linked to affection, is one example of a secondary reinforce.

Another example, money, is only worth something when you can use it to buy other things. A fixed interval reinforcement schedule: Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals e.

A variable interval reinforcement schedule: Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals e. Did you study your notes each day before class?

A fixed ratio reinforcement schedule: Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses e. A variable ratio reinforcement schedule: Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses e. The individuals performing the imitated behavior are called models. Albert Bandura and other researchers proposed a brand of behaviorism social learning theory, which took cognitive processes into account. According to Bandura, pure behaviorism could not explain why learning can take place in the absence of external reinforcement.

He felt that internal mental states must also have a role in learning and that observational learning involves much more than imitation.

According to Lefrancois there are several ways that observational learning can occur: 1. You learn a new response. You choose whether or not to imitate the model depending on what you saw happen to the model. You learn a general rule that you can apply to other situations. Bandura identified three kinds of models: live, verbal, and symbolic.

Bandura described specific steps in the process of modeling that must be followed if learning is to be successful: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. You need to want to copy the behavior, and whether or not you are motivated depends on what happened to the model. If you saw that the model was reinforced for her behavior, you will be more motivated to copy her.

This is known as vicarious reinforcement. On the other hand, if you observed the model being punished, you would be less motivated to copy her. This is called vicarious punishment. Bandura concluded that we watch and learn, and that this learning can have both prosocial and antisocial effects. If you want your children to read, then read to them. Some studies have found a link between viewing violence and aggression seen in children Graham-Bermann, Motive is a need or desire that prompts us to do something.

The study of motivation answers the following questions. Why do people behave as they do? Why does behavior take one form and not another? What makes people behave differently or similarly? How can we motivate people to behave in particular ways, such as eating certain foods or quitting smoking? They differ in their focus on biological factors, cognitive factors and social factors 1. The Instinct Approaches to Motivation This theory states that motivation is the result of an inborn, biologically determined pattern of behavior.

According to this approach, people and animals are born with programmed sets of behavior essential to their survival. Drive Reduction Approach to Motivation DRT Theory of motivation proposed that the maintenance of homeostasis is particularly important in directing behavior. This theory suggests that when people lack some basic biological requirements such as water and food, a drive to obtain these requirements is produced.

To reduce this tension and restore balance, I look for something to eat. Example: hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and sex. Incentive Approaches to Motivation This approach attempts to explain motivation in terms of the nature of the external stimuli; incentives that direct and energize behavior. Example: after eating our meal, we choose to eat a sweet cake. Such behavior is motivated by the dessert itself but not to satisfy internal drives.

Cognitive Approaches to Motivation This approach focuses on the role of our thought, expectations, and understanding of the world. In line with this approach, there are two forms of motivations.

For example, you enables to work hard, produce higher quality work and be perseverant. For example, if you are here because you want to get a college degree to make yourself more marketable for a high-paying career or to satisfy the demands of your parents. Once all other needs are met, people desire to reach their full potential self-actualization.

Achievement motivation theory It is a stable, learned characteristic in which satisfaction is obtained by striving for and attaining a level of excellence. They tend to choose tasks that are of intermediate difficulty. As a result they choose easy tasks. Research shows that high achievement motivation is associated with future economic and occupational success. EMOTIONS An emotion is a subjective state of being that we often describe as our feelings such as happiness, despair, and sorrow that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements influencing behavior.

The James-Lange theory The James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotions arise from physiological arousal.

Theory states that emotional experience is a reaction to instinctive bodily events that occur as a response to some situation or event in the environment. We feel sorry because we cry. We feel angry because we strike. We feel afraid because we tremble. EventPhysiological changesEmotion James and Lang proposed that human beings experience emotions as a result of Physiological changes that produce specific sensations. The brain interprets the sensations as particular kinds of emotional experiences.

According to the Cannon-Bard theory, emotional feelings and bodily arousal occur at the same time. Thus, if you see a dangerous snake, brain activity will simultaneously produce bodily arousal, running, and a feeling of fear.

The Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory According to this theory, emotions are composed of two factors: physiological and cognitive. In other words, physiological arousal is interpreted in context to produce the emotional experience. The two-factor theory maintains that the snake elicits sympathetic nervous system activation that is labeled as fear given the context, and our experience is that of fear.

This appraisal mediates between the stimulus and the emotional response, and it is immediate and often unconscious. The Non- verbal behavior communicates using several channels or paths. From all these ways, facial expressions represent the primary means of communicating emotional states. Facial expression communicates the following six most distinctively identified basic emotions.

The facial-affect program hypothesis assumes that each primary emotion is universally present at birth. They view development as a lifelong process that can be studied scientifically across three developmental domainsпїЅphysical, cognitive, and psychosocial development.

Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality, and social relationships. Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous? With this type of development, there is gradual change. The concept of continuous development can be visualized as a smooth slope of progression, whereas discontinuous development sees growth in more discrete stages.

Is development essentially the same, or universal, for all children i. Stage theories hold that the sequence of development is universal. Infants in all cultures coo before they babble. They begin babbling at about the same age and utter their first word around 12 months old. Yet we live in diverse contexts that have a unique effect on each of us. For example, researchers once believed that motor development follows one course for all children regardless of culture.

However, child care practices vary by culture, and different practices have been found to accelerate or inhibit achievement of developmental milestones such as sitting, crawling, and walking. Are we who we are because of nature biology and genetics , or are we who we are because of nurture our environment and culture?

This longstanding question is known in psychology as the nature versus nurture debate. It seeks to understand how our personalities and traits are the product of our genetic makeup and biological factors, and how they are shaped by our environment, including our parents, peers, and culture.

We are all born with specific genetic traits inherited from our parents, such as eye color, height, and certain personality traits. Our unique experiences in our environment influence whether and how particular traits are expressed, and at the same time, our genes influence how we interact with our environment.

Erikson proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality.

Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy. Stages of Development 1. Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt Stage 18months-3years : by working to establish independence. For example, if denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame. Initiative versus Guilt Stage 3пїЅ6 years : They are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play.

By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Those who do will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage, with their initiative failing may develop feelings of guilt. Industry versus Inferiority Stage 6пїЅ12 years : Children begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up.

What are some things parents and teachers can do to help children develop a sense of competence and a belief in themselves and their abilities? These teens will have a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They are unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Intimacy versus Isolation Stage 40 years : People in early adulthood are concerned with intimacy versus isolation.

After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before developing intimate relationships with others.

Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation. Generativity versus Stagnation Stage years : The social task of middle adulthood is generativity versus stagnation. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation, having little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.

He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets.

However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair. His theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages.

Piaget said that children develop schemata to help them understand the world. Schemata are concepts mental models that are used to help us categorize and interpret information.

This process continues as children interact with their environment. He proposed a theory of cognitive development that explains in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Sensorimotor Stage years During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds.

Preoperational Stage 2 to 7 years old In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play.

Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic. For example, 3 year olds play the hide and seek game. They hide their face against a wall covering their eyes, although they are still in plain view. It seems to them that if they cannot see, no one else will be able to see them.

Concrete Operational Stage 7 to 12 years old In this stage, children can think logically about real concrete events. For example, if you pour water from a tall, thin glass to a short, fat glass, you still have the same amount of water. For example, reversing a ball of clay into a sausage shape and back to a ball shape. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs.

We will discuss prenatal, infant, child, adolescent, and adult development. Germinal Stage Weeks 1пїЅ2 Conception occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote. The genetic makeup and sex of the baby are set at this point. As the cells divide, they become more specialized, forming different organs and body parts. Once it does, the next stage begins. Embryonic Stage Weeks 3пїЅ8 Upon implantation, this multi-cellular organism is called an embryo.

Fetal Stage Weeks 9пїЅ40 When the organism is about nine weeks old, the embryo is called a fetus. Fingers and toes are fully developed, and fingerprints are visible. Hearing has developed, so the fetus can respond to sounds. It weighs about 6 pounds and is about The fetus continues to gain weight and grow in length until approximately 40 weeks.

It is important that the mother takes good care of herself and receives prenatal care, which is medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and the fetus. A teratogen is any environmental agent biological, chemical, or physical that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus.

There are different types of teratogens. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders FASD are a collection of birth defects associated with heavy consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. Physically, children with FASD may have a small head size and abnormal facial features.

Cognitively, these children may have poor judgment, poor impulse control, learning issues, and lower IQ scores. These developmental problems and delays persist into adulthood. When the mother smokes, the developing baby experiences a reduction in blood oxygen levels. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , smoking while pregnant can result in premature birth, low-birth-weight infants, stillbirth, and sudden infant death syndrome SIDS.

All healthy babies are born with newborn reflexes: inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation. Reflexes help the newborn survive until it is capable of more complex behaviorsпїЅthese reflexes are crucial to survival. They are present in babies whose brains are developing normally and usually disappear around 4пїЅ5 months old. The baby spreads her arms, pulls them back in, and then usually cries. This growth spurt continues until around 12 years old, coinciding with the start of the menstrual cycle.

However, the nervous system continues to grow and develop. Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions to more advanced motor functioning.

For instance, babies first learn to hold their heads up, then to sit with assistance, and then to sit unassisted, followed later by crawling and then walking. Motor skills refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects. As motor skills develop, there are certain developmental milestones that young children should achieve.

For each milestone there is an average age, as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should be reached. An example of a developmental milestone is sitting. On average, most babies sit alone at 7 months old. If a baby is not holding up his head by 4 months old, he is showing a delay.

Some developmental delays can be identified and addressed through early intervention. Cognitive Development There are also cognitive milestones. It is helpful to be aware of these milestones as children gain new abilities to think, problem solve, and communicate. We can expect children to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old. Because toddlers i.

Preschool-age children 3пїЅ5 years old also make steady progress in cognitive development. One of the most common examples of their cognitive growth is their developing curiosity. Cognitive skills continue to expand in middle and late childhood 6пїЅ11 years old. Psychosocial Development Psychosocial development occurs as children form relationships, interact with others, and understand and manage their feelings.

Attachment Attachment is emotional bond between child and caregiver. Feelings of comfort and security are the critical components to maternal-infant bonding, which leads to healthy psychosocial development.

Types of Attachments 1. Secure attachment is the most common type of attachment, also considered the healthiest. Securely attached children were distressed when their caregivers left the room in the Strange Situation experiment, but when their caregivers returned, the securely attached children were happy to see them. Securely attached children have caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to their needs.

Avoidant attachment, the child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves. The toddler reacts to the parent the same way she reacts to a stranger.

When the parent does return, the child is slow to show a positive reaction. These children were most likely to have a caregiver who was insensitive and inattentive to their needs.

These children do not explore the toys in the room, as they are too fearful. During separation in the Strange Situation, they became extremely disturbed and angry with the parent. When the parent returns, the children are difficult to comfort. Disorganized attachment, children with disorganized attachment behaved oddly in the Strange Situation.

They freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returns. This type of attachment is seen most often in kids who have been abused.

Self-Concept The primary psychosocial milestone of childhood is the development of a positive sense of self. If you place a baby in front of a mirror, she will reach out to touch her image, thinking it is another baby. However, by about 18 months a toddler will recognize that the person in the mirror is herself.

They enjoy playing with other children. Children at this age also exhibit autonomy, initiate tasks, and carry out plans. Success in these areas contributes to a positive sense of self. At this age, children recognize their own personality traits as well as some other traits they would like to have. I wish I could be more talkative like my friend Khadan.

Children with a positive self-concept tend to be more confident, do better in school, act more independently, and are more willing to try new activities. Parenting Style What can parents do to nurture a healthy self-concept? Diana Baumrind thinks parenting style may be a factor. Baumrind developed and refined a theory describing four parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved. Parents set rules and explain the reasons behind them. They are also flexible and willing to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases.

Children raised by authoritative parents tend to have high self-esteem and social skills. Authoritarian style: The parent places high value on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth. This style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy kids. Permissive style: For parents who employ the permissive style of parenting, the kids run the show and anything goes.

Permissive parents make few demands and rarely use punishment. They tend to be very nurturing and loving, and may play the role of friend rather than parent. Children raised by permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, and the permissive parenting style is negatively associated with grades. Uninvolved style: With the uninvolved style of parenting, the parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful.

The children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at an increased risk of substance abuse. This stage of development also has some predictable physical, cognitive, and psychosocial milestones. Physical Development Adolescence begins with puberty. While the sequence of physical changes in puberty is predictable, the onset and pace of puberty vary widely.

Primary and secondary sexual characteristics develop and mature. Both nature i. Early maturing boys tend to be stronger, taller, and more athletic than their later maturing peers. They are usually more popular, confident, and independent, but they are also at a greater risk for substance abuse and early sexual activity Rantanen, Early maturing girls may be teased or overtly admired, which can cause them to feel self-conscious about their developing bodies. These girls are at a higher risk for depression, substance abuse, and eating disorders Cachelin, Cognitive Development More complex thinking abilities emerge during adolescence.

Teen thinking is also characterized by the ability to consider multiple points of view, imagine hypothetical situations, debate ideas and opinions e. Psychosocial Development Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others.

Each stage brings its own set of rewards and challenges. Physical Development Early Adulthood years : our physical maturation is complete, although our height and weight may increase slightly. In young adulthood, our physical abilities are at their peak, including muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac functioning. Most professional athletes are at the top of their game during this stage.

Many women have children in the young adulthood years, so they may see additional weight gain and breast changes. Middle Adulthood years : Physical decline is gradual. The skin loses some elasticity, and wrinkles are among the first signs of aging. Visual acuity decreases during this time. Women experience a gradual decline in fertility as they approach the onset of menopause, the end of the menstrual cycle, around 50 years old.

Both men and women tend to gain weight: in the abdominal area for men and in the hips and thighs for women. Hair begins to thin and turn gray. Late Adulthood 60 years and older : This is the last stage of physical change. The skin continues to lose elasticity, reaction time slows further, and muscle strength diminishes.

Smell, taste, hearing, and vision, so sharp in our twenties, decline significantly. Our crystalized intelligence information, skills, and strategies we have gathered through a lifetime of experience tends to hold steady as we ageпїЅit may even improve. These processes become slower. Earnings peak during this time, yet job satisfaction is more closely tied to work that involves contact with other people, is interesting, provides opportunities for advancement, and allows some independence.

Our personality is what makes us unique individuals. The word personality comes from the Latin word persona. In the ancient world, a persona was a mask worn by an actor. Levels for Consciousness To explain the concept of conscious versus unconscious experience, Freud compared the mind to an iceberg.

He said that only about one-tenth of our mind is conscious, and the rest of our mind is unconscious. According to Freud, unacceptable urges and desires are kept in our unconscious through a process called repression. According to Freud, our personality develops from a conflict between two forces: our biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives versus our internal socialized control over these drives. Our personality is the result of our efforts to balance these two competing forces.

Structure of Personality Freud suggested that we can understand this by imagining three interacting systems within our minds. He called them the id, ego, and superego. Id The unconscious id contains our most primitive drives or urges, and is present from birth. It directs impulses for hunger, thirst, and sex. Superego The superego develops as a child interacts with others, learning the social rules for right and wrong. The superego acts as our conscience; it is our moral principle that tells us how we should behave.

It strives for perfection and judges our behavior, leading to feelings of pride or when we fall short of the ideal feelings of guilt. Ego The ego is the rational part of our personality. According to Freud, a person who has a strong ego, which can balance the demands of the id and the superego, has a healthy personality.

Freud maintained that imbalances in the system can lead to neurosis a tendency to experience negative emotions , anxiety disorders, or unhealthy behaviors. For example, a person who is dominated by their id might be narcissistic and impulsive. A person with a dominant superego might be controlled by feelings of guilt and deny themselves even socially acceptable pleasures.

The following hypothetical example illustrates how the three personality structures operate in real life situation. Take it! When this happens, Freud believed that the ego seeks to restore balance through various protective measures known as defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms, unconscious protective behaviors that aim to reduce anxiety. When we use defense mechanisms, we are unaware that we are using them.

Further, they operate in various ways that distort reality. According to Freud, we all use ego defense mechanisms. There are several different types of defense mechanisms.

Let us brief discuss some of them: 1. Compensation involves covering up weaknesses by emphasizing a more desirable trait or by overachievement in a more comfortable area. For Example, A person who is very shy may work very hard in school in order to gain recognition. Repression involves keeping something upsetting out of our conscious mind. For example, a teenager, seeing his best friend killed in a car accident, becomes amnesic about the circumstances surrounding the accident.

Denial involves refusing to accept reality. For example, Parents of mentally retarded child say son was of a different species, and in the end would be superior could be escape into reality. For example, suppose a young woman, Halwo, deeply dislikes her mother-in-law, Ardo.

This is difficult for her to accept, so Halwo might repress this feeling and behave as though she thinks Ardo is her favorite person in the world, perhaps greeting her warmly, complimenting her, and treating her like royalty. Rationalization refers to generating an excuse to try to justify behavior that would typically be viewed as wrong. For example, If a person fails an exam, they may excuse themselves from blame by rationalizing that they were too busy to revise during the revision period.

Projection occurs when we project our undesirable characteristics onto other people. Displacement involves redirecting behaviors or feelings that would be distressing toward a more acceptable target. For example, a husband and wife are fighting, and the husband becomes so angry he hits a door instead of his wife. A student gets a C on a paper she worked hard on and goes home and yells at her family.

Sublimation involves translating a distressing desire into an acceptable form. For example, A person with excessive, primitive sexual drives invests psychic energy into a well-defined religious value system.

Regression, an individual acts much younger than their age. For example, a four- year-old child who resents the arrival of a newborn sibling may act like a baby and revert to drinking out of a bottle. Stages of Psychosexual Development Freud believed that personality develops during early childhood: Childhood experiences shape our personalities as well as our behavior as adults. Each of us must pass through these childhood stages, and if we do not have the proper nurturing and parenting during a stage, we will be stuck, or fixated, in that stage, even as adults.

The stages are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. According to Freud, an adult who smokes, drinks, overeats, or bites her nails is fixated in the oral stage of her psychosexual development.

In this stage, children experience pleasure in their bowel and bladder movements, so it makes sense that the conflict in this stage is over toilet training.

The anal-expulsive personality is messy, careless, disorganized, and prone to emotional outbursts. The erogenous zone in this stage is the genitals. Conflict arises when the child feels a desire for the opposite sex parent, and jealousy and hatred toward the same-sex parent. At the same time, the boy is afraid his father will punish him for his feelings, so he experiences castration anxiety. The Oedipus complex is successfully resolved when the boy begins to identify with his father as an indirect way to have the mother.

Failure to resolve the Oedipus complex may result in fixation and development of a personality that might be described as vain and overly ambitious. Girls experience a comparable conflict in the phallic stageпїЅthe Electra complex. Freud also said that girls are angry with the mother for not providing them with a penisпїЅhence the term penis envy.

Latency Period 6 years. Following the phallic stage of psychosexual development is a period known as the latency period. This period is not considered a stage, because sexual feelings are inactive as children focus on other pursuits, such as school, friendships, hobbies, and sports.

Genital Stage from puberty on. The final stage is the genital stage. In this stage, there is a sexual reawakening. The young person redirects these urges to other, more socially acceptable partners who often resemble the other-sex parent. People in this stage have mature sexual interests, which for Freud meant a strong desire for the opposite sex.

Individuals who successfully completed the previous stages, reaching the genital stage with no fixations, are said to be well-balanced, healthy adults. These theorists, referred to as neo-Freudians, generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but deemphasized sex, focusing more on the social environment and effects of culture on personality.

He subsequently founded a school of psychology called individual psychology, which focuses on our drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority. Adler also believed in the importance of social connections, seeing childhood development emerging through social development. Adler noted the interrelatedness of humanity and the need to work together for the betterment of all. Adler identified three fundamental social tasks that all of us must experience: occupational tasks careers , societal tasks friendship , and love tasks finding an intimate partner for a long-term relationship.

He also emphasized conscious rather than unconscious motivation. The youngest children, according to Adler, may be spoiled, leaving the middle child with the opportunity to minimize the negative dynamics of the youngest and oldest children.

In addition to the personal unconscious, Jung focused on the collective unconscious. The collective unconscious is a universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory traces, which are common to all of us. Jung also proposed two attitudes or approaches toward life: extroversion and introversion.

If you are an extrovert, then you are a person who is energized by being outgoing and socially oriented: You derive your energy from being around others. If you are an introvert, then you are a person who may be quiet and reserved, or you may be social, but your energy is derived from your inner psychic activity.

Introverts and Extroverts Introvert Extrovert Energized by being alone Energized by being with others Avoids attention Seeks attention Speaks slowly and softly Speaks quickly and loudly Thinks before speaking Thinks out loud Stays on one topic Jumps from topic to topic Prefers written communication Prefers verbal communication Pays attention easily Distractible Cautious Acts first, thinks later 6.

Skinner believed that environment was solely responsible for all behavior, including the enduring, consistent behavior patterns studied by personality theorists.

In other words, we learn to behave in particular ways. We increase the behaviors that lead to positive consequences, and we decrease the behaviors that lead to negative consequences.

Reinforcements and punishments are factors that shape our personality. He felt that this type of learning also plays a part in the development of our personality. Just as we learn individual behaviors, we learn new behavior patterns when we see them performed by other people or models. We can see the principles of reciprocal determinism at work in observational learning. For example, personal factors determine which behaviors in the environment a person chooses to imitate, and those environmental events in turn are processed cognitively according to other personal factors.

Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy is our level of confidence in our own abilities, developed through our social experiences. Self-efficacy affects how we approach challenges and reach goals. Feelings of self-efficacy can be specific to certain situations. For instance, a student might feel confident in her ability in English class but much less so in math class.

Locus of control refers to our beliefs about the power we have over our lives. Externals see their lives as being controlled by other people, luck, or chance. When you receive your test score, you see that you earned a D. One pioneering humanist, Abraham Maslow, studied people who he considered to be healthy, creative, and productive, including Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, and others. Another humanistic theorist was Carl Rogers.

If your response is primarily positive, then you tend to feel good about who you are, and you see the world as a safe and positive place. If your response is mainly negative, then you may feel unhappy with who you are.

Rogers further divided the self into two categories: the ideal self and the real self. The ideal self is the person that you would like to be; the real self is the person you actually are.

Rogers focused on the idea that we need to achieve consistency between these two selves. We experience congruence when our thoughts about our real self and ideal self are very similarпїЅin other words, when our self-concept is accurate. High congruence leads to a greater sense of self-worth and a healthy, productive life. Parents can help their children achieve this by giving them unconditional positive regard, or unconditional love.

Conversely, when there is a great discrepancy between our ideal and actual selves, we experience a state Rogers called incongruence, which can lead to maladjustment. Do you tend to be sociable or shy? Passive or aggressive? Optimistic or pessimistic? Moody or even-tempered? For example, one trait theorist, Gordon Allport , found 4, words in the English language that could describe people.

He organized these personality traits into three categories: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. Cardinal traits are not very common: Few people have personalities dominated by a single trait.

Instead, our personalities typically are composed of multiple traits. They are present under specific circumstances and include preferences and attitudes such food, music and etc. It is the most popular theory in personality psychology today and the most accurate approximation of the basic trait dimensions. The five traits are openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. People who score high on this trait tend to be curious and have a wide range of interests.

People who score high on this trait are hardworking and dependable. People who score high on this trait are usually described as outgoing and warm. People who score low on agreeableness tend to be described as rude and uncooperative. People high on neuroticism tend to experience emotional instability and are characterized as angry, impulsive, and hostile. Behavior is a product of both the situation e. According to some social psychologists, people tend to overemphasize internal factors as explanations or attributions for the behavior of other people.

They underestimate the power of the situation on the behavior of others. This erroneous assumption is called the fundamental attribution error. Do people in all cultures commit the fundamental attribution error? Self-Serving Bias Self-serving bias are those attributions that enable us to see ourselves in favorable light for example, making internal attributions for success and external attributions for failures.

This bias serves to protect self-esteem. Just-World Hypothesis The just-world hypothesis is the belief that people get the outcomes they deserve. For example, if you want to experience positive outcomes, you just need to work hard to get ahead in life.

Attitudes are favorable or unfavorable: positive or negative. And, they have three components: an affective component feelings , a behavioral component the effect of the attitude on behavior , and a cognitive component belief and knowledge. For example, you may hold a positive attitude toward recycling.

Certainly, this attitude should be reflected in our behavior: You actually recycle as often as you can. Our attitudes and beliefs are not only influenced by external forces, but also by internal influences that we control.

In this section we discuss the conditions under which we would want to change our own attitudes and beliefs. Cognitive dissonance as psychological discomfort arising from holding two or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviors, or cognitions thoughts, beliefs, or opinions. For example, if you believe smoking is bad for your health but you continue to smoke, you experience conflict between your belief and behavior.

When we experience cognitive dissonance, we are motivated to decrease it because it is psychologically, physically, and mentally uncomfortable. We can reduce cognitive dissonance by bringing our cognitions, attitudes, and behaviors in lineпїЅthat is, making them harmonious. Much of the persuasion we experience comes from outside forces. Out of this work came a model called the Yale attitude change approach, which describes the conditions under which people tend to change their attitudes.

Hovland demonstrated that certain features of the source of a persuasive message, the content of the message, and the characteristics of the audience will influence the persuasiveness of a message. The use of famous to advertise products on television and in print relies on this principle. The immediate and long term impact of the persuasion also depends, however, on the credibility of the messenger.

Messages that are more subtle are more persuasive than direct messages. In order to be persuaded, audience members must be paying attention.

People with lower intelligence are more easily persuaded than people with higher intelligence; whereas people with moderate self-esteem are more easily persuaded than people with higher or lower self-esteem. Finally, younger adults aged 18пїЅ25 are more persuadable than older adults. Elaboration Likelihood Model According to the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion, there are two main routes that play a role in delivering a persuasive message: central and peripheral.

Persuasion can take one of two paths, and the durability of the end result depends on the path. This is a direct route to persuasion that focuses on the quality of the information. In order for the central route of persuasion to be effective in changing attitudes, thoughts, and behaviors, the argument must be strong and, if successful, will result in lasting attitude change. The central route to persuasion works best when the target of persuasion, or the audience, is analytical and willing to engage in processing of the information.

One example is buying a computer. The peripheral route is an indirect route that uses peripheral cues to associate positivity with the message. For example, having a popular athlete advertise athletic shoes is a common method used to encourage young adults to purchase the shoes.

This route to attitude change does not require much effort or information processing. This method of persuasion may promote positivity toward the message or product, but it typically results in less permanent attitude or behavior change. The audience does not need to be analytical or motivated to process the message. Another example is clothing: A retailer may focus on celebrities that are wearing the same style of clothing.

One effective strategy is the foot-in- the-door technique. Using the foot-in-the-door technique, the persuader gets a person to agree to bestow a small favor or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a bigger item.

Our past behavior often directs our future behavior, and we have a desire to maintain consistency once we have a committed to a behavior. A common application of foot-in-the-door is when teens ask their parents for a small permission for example, extending curfew by a half hour and then asking them for something larger. Prejudice and discrimination affect everyone.

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How can we motivate people to behave in particular ways, such as eating certain foods or quitting smoking? They differ in their focus on biological factors, cognitive factors and social factors 1. The Instinct Approaches to Motivation This theory states that motivation is the result of an inborn, biologically determined pattern of behavior.

According to this approach, people and animals are born with programmed sets of behavior essential to their survival. Drive Reduction Approach to Motivation DRT Theory of motivation proposed that the maintenance of homeostasis is particularly important in directing behavior.

This theory suggests that when people lack some basic biological requirements such as water and food, a drive to obtain these requirements is produced. To reduce this tension and restore balance, I look for something to eat. Example: hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and sex. Incentive Approaches to Motivation This approach attempts to explain motivation in terms of the nature of the external stimuli; incentives that direct and energize behavior. Example: after eating our meal, we choose to eat a sweet cake.

Such behavior is motivated by the dessert itself but not to satisfy internal drives. Cognitive Approaches to Motivation This approach focuses on the role of our thought, expectations, and understanding of the world. In line with this approach, there are two forms of motivations. For example, you enables to work hard, produce higher quality work and be perseverant.

For example, if you are here because you want to get a college degree to make yourself more marketable for a high-paying career or to satisfy the demands of your parents. Once all other needs are met, people desire to reach their full potential self-actualization. Achievement motivation theory It is a stable, learned characteristic in which satisfaction is obtained by striving for and attaining a level of excellence.

They tend to choose tasks that are of intermediate difficulty. As a result they choose easy tasks. Research shows that high achievement motivation is associated with future economic and occupational success. EMOTIONS An emotion is a subjective state of being that we often describe as our feelings such as happiness, despair, and sorrow that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements influencing behavior.

The James-Lange theory The James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotions arise from physiological arousal. Theory states that emotional experience is a reaction to instinctive bodily events that occur as a response to some situation or event in the environment.

We feel sorry because we cry. We feel angry because we strike. We feel afraid because we tremble. EventPhysiological changesEmotion James and Lang proposed that human beings experience emotions as a result of Physiological changes that produce specific sensations. The brain interprets the sensations as particular kinds of emotional experiences.

According to the Cannon-Bard theory, emotional feelings and bodily arousal occur at the same time. Thus, if you see a dangerous snake, brain activity will simultaneously produce bodily arousal, running, and a feeling of fear. The Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory According to this theory, emotions are composed of two factors: physiological and cognitive. In other words, physiological arousal is interpreted in context to produce the emotional experience.

The two-factor theory maintains that the snake elicits sympathetic nervous system activation that is labeled as fear given the context, and our experience is that of fear. This appraisal mediates between the stimulus and the emotional response, and it is immediate and often unconscious.

The Non- verbal behavior communicates using several channels or paths. From all these ways, facial expressions represent the primary means of communicating emotional states. Facial expression communicates the following six most distinctively identified basic emotions.

The facial-affect program hypothesis assumes that each primary emotion is universally present at birth. They view development as a lifelong process that can be studied scientifically across three developmental domainsпїЅphysical, cognitive, and psychosocial development.

Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality, and social relationships. Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous? With this type of development, there is gradual change. The concept of continuous development can be visualized as a smooth slope of progression, whereas discontinuous development sees growth in more discrete stages. Is development essentially the same, or universal, for all children i. Stage theories hold that the sequence of development is universal.

Infants in all cultures coo before they babble. They begin babbling at about the same age and utter their first word around 12 months old. Yet we live in diverse contexts that have a unique effect on each of us.

For example, researchers once believed that motor development follows one course for all children regardless of culture. However, child care practices vary by culture, and different practices have been found to accelerate or inhibit achievement of developmental milestones such as sitting, crawling, and walking.

Are we who we are because of nature biology and genetics , or are we who we are because of nurture our environment and culture? This longstanding question is known in psychology as the nature versus nurture debate. It seeks to understand how our personalities and traits are the product of our genetic makeup and biological factors, and how they are shaped by our environment, including our parents, peers, and culture.

We are all born with specific genetic traits inherited from our parents, such as eye color, height, and certain personality traits. Our unique experiences in our environment influence whether and how particular traits are expressed, and at the same time, our genes influence how we interact with our environment.

Erikson proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood.

At each stage there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality.

Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy. Stages of Development 1. Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt Stage 18months-3years : by working to establish independence.

For example, if denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame. Initiative versus Guilt Stage 3пїЅ6 years : They are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play.

By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Those who do will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage, with their initiative failing may develop feelings of guilt. Industry versus Inferiority Stage 6пїЅ12 years : Children begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up. What are some things parents and teachers can do to help children develop a sense of competence and a belief in themselves and their abilities?

These teens will have a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They are unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Intimacy versus Isolation Stage 40 years : People in early adulthood are concerned with intimacy versus isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others.

Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before developing intimate relationships with others. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation. Generativity versus Stagnation Stage years : The social task of middle adulthood is generativity versus stagnation.

Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation, having little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure.

People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair. His theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages.

Piaget said that children develop schemata to help them understand the world. Schemata are concepts mental models that are used to help us categorize and interpret information. This process continues as children interact with their environment. He proposed a theory of cognitive development that explains in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Sensorimotor Stage years During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior.

Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds. Preoperational Stage 2 to 7 years old In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play.

Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic. For example, 3 year olds play the hide and seek game. They hide their face against a wall covering their eyes, although they are still in plain view. It seems to them that if they cannot see, no one else will be able to see them. Concrete Operational Stage 7 to 12 years old In this stage, children can think logically about real concrete events.

For example, if you pour water from a tall, thin glass to a short, fat glass, you still have the same amount of water. For example, reversing a ball of clay into a sausage shape and back to a ball shape. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. We will discuss prenatal, infant, child, adolescent, and adult development. Germinal Stage Weeks 1пїЅ2 Conception occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote. The genetic makeup and sex of the baby are set at this point.

As the cells divide, they become more specialized, forming different organs and body parts. Once it does, the next stage begins. Embryonic Stage Weeks 3пїЅ8 Upon implantation, this multi-cellular organism is called an embryo. Fetal Stage Weeks 9пїЅ40 When the organism is about nine weeks old, the embryo is called a fetus. Fingers and toes are fully developed, and fingerprints are visible. Hearing has developed, so the fetus can respond to sounds. It weighs about 6 pounds and is about The fetus continues to gain weight and grow in length until approximately 40 weeks.

It is important that the mother takes good care of herself and receives prenatal care, which is medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and the fetus. A teratogen is any environmental agent biological, chemical, or physical that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus.

There are different types of teratogens. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders FASD are a collection of birth defects associated with heavy consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. Physically, children with FASD may have a small head size and abnormal facial features. Cognitively, these children may have poor judgment, poor impulse control, learning issues, and lower IQ scores.

These developmental problems and delays persist into adulthood. When the mother smokes, the developing baby experiences a reduction in blood oxygen levels.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , smoking while pregnant can result in premature birth, low-birth-weight infants, stillbirth, and sudden infant death syndrome SIDS. All healthy babies are born with newborn reflexes: inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation.

Reflexes help the newborn survive until it is capable of more complex behaviorsпїЅthese reflexes are crucial to survival. They are present in babies whose brains are developing normally and usually disappear around 4пїЅ5 months old. The baby spreads her arms, pulls them back in, and then usually cries.

This growth spurt continues until around 12 years old, coinciding with the start of the menstrual cycle. However, the nervous system continues to grow and develop. Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions to more advanced motor functioning. For instance, babies first learn to hold their heads up, then to sit with assistance, and then to sit unassisted, followed later by crawling and then walking.

Motor skills refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects. As motor skills develop, there are certain developmental milestones that young children should achieve. For each milestone there is an average age, as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should be reached. An example of a developmental milestone is sitting. On average, most babies sit alone at 7 months old.

If a baby is not holding up his head by 4 months old, he is showing a delay. Some developmental delays can be identified and addressed through early intervention. Cognitive Development There are also cognitive milestones. It is helpful to be aware of these milestones as children gain new abilities to think, problem solve, and communicate. We can expect children to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old.

Because toddlers i. Preschool-age children 3пїЅ5 years old also make steady progress in cognitive development. One of the most common examples of their cognitive growth is their developing curiosity. Cognitive skills continue to expand in middle and late childhood 6пїЅ11 years old. Psychosocial Development Psychosocial development occurs as children form relationships, interact with others, and understand and manage their feelings.

Attachment Attachment is emotional bond between child and caregiver. Feelings of comfort and security are the critical components to maternal-infant bonding, which leads to healthy psychosocial development. Types of Attachments 1. Secure attachment is the most common type of attachment, also considered the healthiest. Securely attached children were distressed when their caregivers left the room in the Strange Situation experiment, but when their caregivers returned, the securely attached children were happy to see them.

Securely attached children have caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to their needs. Avoidant attachment, the child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves.

The toddler reacts to the parent the same way she reacts to a stranger. When the parent does return, the child is slow to show a positive reaction. These children were most likely to have a caregiver who was insensitive and inattentive to their needs. These children do not explore the toys in the room, as they are too fearful. During separation in the Strange Situation, they became extremely disturbed and angry with the parent.

When the parent returns, the children are difficult to comfort. Disorganized attachment, children with disorganized attachment behaved oddly in the Strange Situation. They freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returns. This type of attachment is seen most often in kids who have been abused. Self-Concept The primary psychosocial milestone of childhood is the development of a positive sense of self.

If you place a baby in front of a mirror, she will reach out to touch her image, thinking it is another baby. However, by about 18 months a toddler will recognize that the person in the mirror is herself. They enjoy playing with other children. Children at this age also exhibit autonomy, initiate tasks, and carry out plans.

Success in these areas contributes to a positive sense of self. At this age, children recognize their own personality traits as well as some other traits they would like to have. I wish I could be more talkative like my friend Khadan. Children with a positive self-concept tend to be more confident, do better in school, act more independently, and are more willing to try new activities.

Parenting Style What can parents do to nurture a healthy self-concept? Diana Baumrind thinks parenting style may be a factor. Baumrind developed and refined a theory describing four parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved. Parents set rules and explain the reasons behind them. They are also flexible and willing to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases.

Children raised by authoritative parents tend to have high self-esteem and social skills. Authoritarian style: The parent places high value on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth. This style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy kids.

Permissive style: For parents who employ the permissive style of parenting, the kids run the show and anything goes. Permissive parents make few demands and rarely use punishment. They tend to be very nurturing and loving, and may play the role of friend rather than parent. Children raised by permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, and the permissive parenting style is negatively associated with grades. Uninvolved style: With the uninvolved style of parenting, the parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful.

The children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at an increased risk of substance abuse. This stage of development also has some predictable physical, cognitive, and psychosocial milestones.

Physical Development Adolescence begins with puberty. While the sequence of physical changes in puberty is predictable, the onset and pace of puberty vary widely. Primary and secondary sexual characteristics develop and mature. Both nature i. Early maturing boys tend to be stronger, taller, and more athletic than their later maturing peers. They are usually more popular, confident, and independent, but they are also at a greater risk for substance abuse and early sexual activity Rantanen, Early maturing girls may be teased or overtly admired, which can cause them to feel self-conscious about their developing bodies.

These girls are at a higher risk for depression, substance abuse, and eating disorders Cachelin, Cognitive Development More complex thinking abilities emerge during adolescence. Teen thinking is also characterized by the ability to consider multiple points of view, imagine hypothetical situations, debate ideas and opinions e.

Psychosocial Development Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Each stage brings its own set of rewards and challenges.

Physical Development Early Adulthood years : our physical maturation is complete, although our height and weight may increase slightly. In young adulthood, our physical abilities are at their peak, including muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac functioning. Most professional athletes are at the top of their game during this stage. Many women have children in the young adulthood years, so they may see additional weight gain and breast changes.

Middle Adulthood years : Physical decline is gradual. The skin loses some elasticity, and wrinkles are among the first signs of aging. Visual acuity decreases during this time. Women experience a gradual decline in fertility as they approach the onset of menopause, the end of the menstrual cycle, around 50 years old. Both men and women tend to gain weight: in the abdominal area for men and in the hips and thighs for women.

Hair begins to thin and turn gray. Late Adulthood 60 years and older : This is the last stage of physical change. The skin continues to lose elasticity, reaction time slows further, and muscle strength diminishes. Smell, taste, hearing, and vision, so sharp in our twenties, decline significantly. Our crystalized intelligence information, skills, and strategies we have gathered through a lifetime of experience tends to hold steady as we ageпїЅit may even improve.

These processes become slower. Earnings peak during this time, yet job satisfaction is more closely tied to work that involves contact with other people, is interesting, provides opportunities for advancement, and allows some independence. Our personality is what makes us unique individuals. The word personality comes from the Latin word persona. In the ancient world, a persona was a mask worn by an actor. Levels for Consciousness To explain the concept of conscious versus unconscious experience, Freud compared the mind to an iceberg.

He said that only about one-tenth of our mind is conscious, and the rest of our mind is unconscious. According to Freud, unacceptable urges and desires are kept in our unconscious through a process called repression. According to Freud, our personality develops from a conflict between two forces: our biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives versus our internal socialized control over these drives.

Our personality is the result of our efforts to balance these two competing forces. Structure of Personality Freud suggested that we can understand this by imagining three interacting systems within our minds.

He called them the id, ego, and superego. Id The unconscious id contains our most primitive drives or urges, and is present from birth. It directs impulses for hunger, thirst, and sex. Superego The superego develops as a child interacts with others, learning the social rules for right and wrong. The superego acts as our conscience; it is our moral principle that tells us how we should behave. It strives for perfection and judges our behavior, leading to feelings of pride or when we fall short of the ideal feelings of guilt.

Ego The ego is the rational part of our personality. According to Freud, a person who has a strong ego, which can balance the demands of the id and the superego, has a healthy personality. Freud maintained that imbalances in the system can lead to neurosis a tendency to experience negative emotions , anxiety disorders, or unhealthy behaviors.

For example, a person who is dominated by their id might be narcissistic and impulsive. A person with a dominant superego might be controlled by feelings of guilt and deny themselves even socially acceptable pleasures. The following hypothetical example illustrates how the three personality structures operate in real life situation. Take it! When this happens, Freud believed that the ego seeks to restore balance through various protective measures known as defense mechanisms.

Defense mechanisms, unconscious protective behaviors that aim to reduce anxiety. When we use defense mechanisms, we are unaware that we are using them. Further, they operate in various ways that distort reality. According to Freud, we all use ego defense mechanisms. There are several different types of defense mechanisms. Let us brief discuss some of them: 1. Compensation involves covering up weaknesses by emphasizing a more desirable trait or by overachievement in a more comfortable area.

For Example, A person who is very shy may work very hard in school in order to gain recognition. Repression involves keeping something upsetting out of our conscious mind. For example, a teenager, seeing his best friend killed in a car accident, becomes amnesic about the circumstances surrounding the accident. Denial involves refusing to accept reality. For example, Parents of mentally retarded child say son was of a different species, and in the end would be superior could be escape into reality.

For example, suppose a young woman, Halwo, deeply dislikes her mother-in-law, Ardo. This is difficult for her to accept, so Halwo might repress this feeling and behave as though she thinks Ardo is her favorite person in the world, perhaps greeting her warmly, complimenting her, and treating her like royalty. Rationalization refers to generating an excuse to try to justify behavior that would typically be viewed as wrong.

For example, If a person fails an exam, they may excuse themselves from blame by rationalizing that they were too busy to revise during the revision period.

Projection occurs when we project our undesirable characteristics onto other people. Displacement involves redirecting behaviors or feelings that would be distressing toward a more acceptable target. For example, a husband and wife are fighting, and the husband becomes so angry he hits a door instead of his wife. A student gets a C on a paper she worked hard on and goes home and yells at her family.

Sublimation involves translating a distressing desire into an acceptable form. For example, A person with excessive, primitive sexual drives invests psychic energy into a well-defined religious value system. Regression, an individual acts much younger than their age. For example, a four- year-old child who resents the arrival of a newborn sibling may act like a baby and revert to drinking out of a bottle. Stages of Psychosexual Development Freud believed that personality develops during early childhood: Childhood experiences shape our personalities as well as our behavior as adults.

Each of us must pass through these childhood stages, and if we do not have the proper nurturing and parenting during a stage, we will be stuck, or fixated, in that stage, even as adults. The stages are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. According to Freud, an adult who smokes, drinks, overeats, or bites her nails is fixated in the oral stage of her psychosexual development. In this stage, children experience pleasure in their bowel and bladder movements, so it makes sense that the conflict in this stage is over toilet training.

The anal-expulsive personality is messy, careless, disorganized, and prone to emotional outbursts. The erogenous zone in this stage is the genitals. Conflict arises when the child feels a desire for the opposite sex parent, and jealousy and hatred toward the same-sex parent. At the same time, the boy is afraid his father will punish him for his feelings, so he experiences castration anxiety.

The Oedipus complex is successfully resolved when the boy begins to identify with his father as an indirect way to have the mother. Failure to resolve the Oedipus complex may result in fixation and development of a personality that might be described as vain and overly ambitious. Girls experience a comparable conflict in the phallic stageпїЅthe Electra complex. Freud also said that girls are angry with the mother for not providing them with a penisпїЅhence the term penis envy.

Latency Period 6 years. Following the phallic stage of psychosexual development is a period known as the latency period. This period is not considered a stage, because sexual feelings are inactive as children focus on other pursuits, such as school, friendships, hobbies, and sports. Genital Stage from puberty on. The final stage is the genital stage. In this stage, there is a sexual reawakening.

The young person redirects these urges to other, more socially acceptable partners who often resemble the other-sex parent. People in this stage have mature sexual interests, which for Freud meant a strong desire for the opposite sex.

Individuals who successfully completed the previous stages, reaching the genital stage with no fixations, are said to be well-balanced, healthy adults. These theorists, referred to as neo-Freudians, generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but deemphasized sex, focusing more on the social environment and effects of culture on personality.

He subsequently founded a school of psychology called individual psychology, which focuses on our drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority. Adler also believed in the importance of social connections, seeing childhood development emerging through social development. Adler noted the interrelatedness of humanity and the need to work together for the betterment of all.

Adler identified three fundamental social tasks that all of us must experience: occupational tasks careers , societal tasks friendship , and love tasks finding an intimate partner for a long-term relationship. He also emphasized conscious rather than unconscious motivation.

The youngest children, according to Adler, may be spoiled, leaving the middle child with the opportunity to minimize the negative dynamics of the youngest and oldest children.

In addition to the personal unconscious, Jung focused on the collective unconscious. The collective unconscious is a universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory traces, which are common to all of us. Jung also proposed two attitudes or approaches toward life: extroversion and introversion. If you are an extrovert, then you are a person who is energized by being outgoing and socially oriented: You derive your energy from being around others.

If you are an introvert, then you are a person who may be quiet and reserved, or you may be social, but your energy is derived from your inner psychic activity.

Introverts and Extroverts Introvert Extrovert Energized by being alone Energized by being with others Avoids attention Seeks attention Speaks slowly and softly Speaks quickly and loudly Thinks before speaking Thinks out loud Stays on one topic Jumps from topic to topic Prefers written communication Prefers verbal communication Pays attention easily Distractible Cautious Acts first, thinks later 6. Skinner believed that environment was solely responsible for all behavior, including the enduring, consistent behavior patterns studied by personality theorists.

In other words, we learn to behave in particular ways. We increase the behaviors that lead to positive consequences, and we decrease the behaviors that lead to negative consequences.

Reinforcements and punishments are factors that shape our personality. He felt that this type of learning also plays a part in the development of our personality. Just as we learn individual behaviors, we learn new behavior patterns when we see them performed by other people or models.

We can see the principles of reciprocal determinism at work in observational learning. For example, personal factors determine which behaviors in the environment a person chooses to imitate, and those environmental events in turn are processed cognitively according to other personal factors. Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy is our level of confidence in our own abilities, developed through our social experiences.

Self-efficacy affects how we approach challenges and reach goals. Feelings of self-efficacy can be specific to certain situations. For instance, a student might feel confident in her ability in English class but much less so in math class. Locus of control refers to our beliefs about the power we have over our lives.

Externals see their lives as being controlled by other people, luck, or chance. When you receive your test score, you see that you earned a D. One pioneering humanist, Abraham Maslow, studied people who he considered to be healthy, creative, and productive, including Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, and others. Another humanistic theorist was Carl Rogers. If your response is primarily positive, then you tend to feel good about who you are, and you see the world as a safe and positive place.

If your response is mainly negative, then you may feel unhappy with who you are. Rogers further divided the self into two categories: the ideal self and the real self. The ideal self is the person that you would like to be; the real self is the person you actually are. Rogers focused on the idea that we need to achieve consistency between these two selves.

We experience congruence when our thoughts about our real self and ideal self are very similarпїЅin other words, when our self-concept is accurate. High congruence leads to a greater sense of self-worth and a healthy, productive life.

Parents can help their children achieve this by giving them unconditional positive regard, or unconditional love. Conversely, when there is a great discrepancy between our ideal and actual selves, we experience a state Rogers called incongruence, which can lead to maladjustment. Do you tend to be sociable or shy? Passive or aggressive? Optimistic or pessimistic? Moody or even-tempered? For example, one trait theorist, Gordon Allport , found 4, words in the English language that could describe people.

He organized these personality traits into three categories: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. Cardinal traits are not very common: Few people have personalities dominated by a single trait. Instead, our personalities typically are composed of multiple traits.

They are present under specific circumstances and include preferences and attitudes such food, music and etc. It is the most popular theory in personality psychology today and the most accurate approximation of the basic trait dimensions. The five traits are openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. People who score high on this trait tend to be curious and have a wide range of interests. People who score high on this trait are hardworking and dependable.

People who score high on this trait are usually described as outgoing and warm. People who score low on agreeableness tend to be described as rude and uncooperative. People high on neuroticism tend to experience emotional instability and are characterized as angry, impulsive, and hostile. Behavior is a product of both the situation e.

According to some social psychologists, people tend to overemphasize internal factors as explanations or attributions for the behavior of other people. They underestimate the power of the situation on the behavior of others. This erroneous assumption is called the fundamental attribution error.

Do people in all cultures commit the fundamental attribution error? Self-Serving Bias Self-serving bias are those attributions that enable us to see ourselves in favorable light for example, making internal attributions for success and external attributions for failures. This bias serves to protect self-esteem.

Just-World Hypothesis The just-world hypothesis is the belief that people get the outcomes they deserve. For example, if you want to experience positive outcomes, you just need to work hard to get ahead in life. Attitudes are favorable or unfavorable: positive or negative. And, they have three components: an affective component feelings , a behavioral component the effect of the attitude on behavior , and a cognitive component belief and knowledge. For example, you may hold a positive attitude toward recycling.

Certainly, this attitude should be reflected in our behavior: You actually recycle as often as you can. Our attitudes and beliefs are not only influenced by external forces, but also by internal influences that we control.

In this section we discuss the conditions under which we would want to change our own attitudes and beliefs. Cognitive dissonance as psychological discomfort arising from holding two or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviors, or cognitions thoughts, beliefs, or opinions. For example, if you believe smoking is bad for your health but you continue to smoke, you experience conflict between your belief and behavior. When we experience cognitive dissonance, we are motivated to decrease it because it is psychologically, physically, and mentally uncomfortable.

We can reduce cognitive dissonance by bringing our cognitions, attitudes, and behaviors in lineпїЅthat is, making them harmonious. Much of the persuasion we experience comes from outside forces. Out of this work came a model called the Yale attitude change approach, which describes the conditions under which people tend to change their attitudes.

Hovland demonstrated that certain features of the source of a persuasive message, the content of the message, and the characteristics of the audience will influence the persuasiveness of a message. The use of famous to advertise products on television and in print relies on this principle. The immediate and long term impact of the persuasion also depends, however, on the credibility of the messenger. Messages that are more subtle are more persuasive than direct messages.

In order to be persuaded, audience members must be paying attention. People with lower intelligence are more easily persuaded than people with higher intelligence; whereas people with moderate self-esteem are more easily persuaded than people with higher or lower self-esteem.

Finally, younger adults aged 18пїЅ25 are more persuadable than older adults. Elaboration Likelihood Model According to the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion, there are two main routes that play a role in delivering a persuasive message: central and peripheral. Persuasion can take one of two paths, and the durability of the end result depends on the path.

This is a direct route to persuasion that focuses on the quality of the information. In order for the central route of persuasion to be effective in changing attitudes, thoughts, and behaviors, the argument must be strong and, if successful, will result in lasting attitude change. The central route to persuasion works best when the target of persuasion, or the audience, is analytical and willing to engage in processing of the information. One example is buying a computer.

The peripheral route is an indirect route that uses peripheral cues to associate positivity with the message. For example, having a popular athlete advertise athletic shoes is a common method used to encourage young adults to purchase the shoes. This route to attitude change does not require much effort or information processing. This method of persuasion may promote positivity toward the message or product, but it typically results in less permanent attitude or behavior change.

The audience does not need to be analytical or motivated to process the message. Another example is clothing: A retailer may focus on celebrities that are wearing the same style of clothing. One effective strategy is the foot-in- the-door technique. Using the foot-in-the-door technique, the persuader gets a person to agree to bestow a small favor or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a bigger item.

Our past behavior often directs our future behavior, and we have a desire to maintain consistency once we have a committed to a behavior. A common application of foot-in-the-door is when teens ask their parents for a small permission for example, extending curfew by a half hour and then asking them for something larger.

Prejudice and discrimination affect everyone. Factors that contribute prejudice may include gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, social class, religion, sexual orientation, profession, and many more. Prejudice often begins in the form of a stereotypeпїЅthat is, a negative belief about individuals based solely on their membership in a group, regardless of their individual characteristics.

For example, black male athletes are often believed to be more athletic, yet less intelligent, than their White male counterparts. Why do Prejudice and Discrimination exist? Prejudice and discrimination persist in society due to social learning and conformity to social norms.

When we hold stereotypes about a person, we tend to treat the person according to our expectations. For example, Scapegoating is the act of blaming an out-group when the in group experiences frustration or is blocked from obtaining a goal.

Forming Relationships What do you think is the single most influential factor in determining with whom you become friends and whom you form romantic relationships? You are more likely to be friends with people you have regular contact with. We contribute to relationships, but we expect to receive benefits as well. We form more intimate connections with people with whom we disclose important information about ourselves.

Attraction What features of a person do we find attractive? Researchers have documented several characteristics in men and women that humans find attractive. People differ in what they consider attractive, and attractiveness is culturally influenced. Robert Sternberg proposed that there are three components of love: intimacy, passion, and commitment.

However, different aspects of love might be more prevalent at different life stages. Social Exchange Theory We have discussed why we form relationships, what attracts us to others, and different types of love. But what determines whether we are satisfied with and stay in a relationship?

One theory that provides an explanation is social exchange theory. According to social exchange theory, we act as economists in keeping a tally of the ratio of costs and benefits of forming and maintaining a relationship with others. Acting like economists, people may keep track of the costs and benefits of maintaining a relationship.

Typically, only those relationships in which the benefits outweigh the costs will be maintained. If you have ever decided to commit to a romantic relationship, you probably considered the advantages and disadvantages of your decision.

You may have considered having companionship, intimacy, and passion, but also being comfortable with a person you know well. What are the costs of being in a committed romantic relationship?

You may think that over time boredom from being with only one person may set in; moreover, it may be expensive to share activities such as attending movies and going to dinner. Researchers have had a difficult time agreeing on an acceptable definition of stress.

Some have conceptualized stress as a demanding or threatening event or situation e. Such conceptualizations are known as stimulus-based definitions because they characterize stress as a stimulus that causes certain reactions. For example, a hardworking student who has studied diligently all semester would likely experience less stress during final exams week than would a less responsible, unprepared student. Others have conceptualized stress in ways that emphasize the physiological responses that occur when faced with demanding or threatening situations.

These conceptualizations are referred to as response-based definitions because they describe stress as a response to environmental conditions. Neither stimulus based nor response-based definitions provide a complete definition of stress. Stress is to view it as a process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that he appraises as overwhelming or threatening to his well-being. Two kinds of appraisals of a stressor are especially important in this regard: primary and secondary appraisals.

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