Acids and bases pdf download

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However, other substances which do not contain hydroxide ions can nevertheless produce them by reaction with water, and are therefore also classified as bases. Two classes of such substances are the metal oxides and the hydrogen compounds of certain nonmetals:. Acids and bases react with one another to yield two products: water, and an ionic compound known as a salt. This kind of reaction is called a neutralization reaction. This "molecular" equation is convenient to write, but we need to re-cast it as a net ionic equation to reveal what is really going on here when the reaction takes place in water, as is almost always the case.

If we cancel out the ions that appear on both sides and therefore don't really participate in the reaction , we are left with the net equation. Confirmation that this equation describes all neutralization reactions that take place in water is provided by experiments indicating that no matter what acid and base are combined, all liberate the same amount of heat In the case of a weak acid, or a base that is not very soluble in water, more than one step might be required.

For example, a similar reaction can occur between acetic acid and calcium hydroxide to produce calcium acetate :. If, on the other hand, we add solid calcium hydroxide to pure liquid acetic acid, the net reaction would include both reactants in their "molecular" forms:.

The salt can be recovered as a solid by evaporating the water. Search site Search Search. Go back to previous article. Sign in. Learning Objectives Make sure you thoroughly understand the following essential ideas which have been presented above. Suggest simple tests you could carry out to determine if an unknown substance is an acid or a base. State the chemical definitions of an acid and a base in terms of their behavior in water.

Write the formula of the salt formed when a given acid and base are combined. Acids have long been recognized as a distinctive class of compounds whose aqueous solutions exhibit the following properties: A characteristic sour taste think of lemon juice! Note: Litmas Litmus is a natural dye found in certain lichens. Note Lavoisier had recently assigned this name to the new gaseous element that Joseph Priestly had discovered a few years earlier as the essential substance that supports combustion.

By the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius was able to formulate the first useful theory of acids: Arrhenius Definition "an acidic substance is one whose molecular unit contains at least one hydrogen atom that can dissociate, or ionize , when dissolved in water, producing a hydrated hydrogen ion and an anion. Definition of an acid An acid is a substance that yields an excess of hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. An important part of knowing chemistry is being able to predict which hydrogen atoms in a substance will be able to dissociate into hydrogen ions.

Those hydrogens that do dissociate can do so to different degrees. Most organic acids, such as acetic acid, are weak ; only a small fraction of the acid is dissociated in most solutions.

HF and HCN are examples of weak inorganic acids. Acids that possess more than one dissociable hydrogen atom are known as polyprotic acids; H 2 SO 4 and H 3 PO 4 are well-known examples.

Intermediate forms such as HPO 4 2� , being capable of both accepting and losing protons, are called ampholytes. It is of Arabic origin, from al-kali "the ashes" which refers to the calcined wood ashes that were boiled with water to obtain potash which contains the strong base KOH, used in soap making. The element name potassium and its symbol K from the Latin kalium derive from these sources.

Something with a pH less than 7 indicates acidic properties and greater than 7 indicates basic properties. A pH at exactly 7 is neutral. The Lewis theory of acids and bases states that acids act as electron pair acceptors and bases act as electron pair doners. This definition doesn't mention anything about the hydrogen atom at all, unlike the other definitions.

It only talks about the transfer of electron pairs. To demonstrate this theory, consider the following example. This is a reaction between ammonia NH 3 and boron trifluoride BF 3. Since there is no transfer of hydrogen atoms here, it is clear that this is a Lewis acid-base reaction. In this reaction, NH 3 has a lone pair of electrons and BF 3 has an incomplete octet, since boron doesn't have enough electrons around it to form an octet.

Because boron only has 6 electrons around it, it can hold 2 more. BF 3 can act as a Lewis acid and accept the pair of electrons from the nitrogen in NH 3 , which will then form a bond between the nitrogen and the boron. This is considered an acid-base reaction where NH 3 base is donating the pair of electrons to BF 3.

A special property of acids and bases is their ability to neutralize the other's properties. Another product of a neutralization reaction is an ionic compound called a salt. Therefore, the general form of an acid-base reaction is:. Titrations are performed with acids and bases to determine their concentrations. At the equivalence point, the number of moles of the acid will equal the number of moles of the base.

This indicates that the reaction has been neutralized. For instance, 30 mL of 1. The concentration of HCl needs to be determined. At the eqivalence point:. To solve for the molarity of HCl, plug in the given data into the equation above. Solution : There are 6 strong acids and all other acids are considered weak. HNO 3 is one of those 6 strong acids, while NH 3 is actuallly a weak base. They all give away protons. In the case of HPO 4 2- , consider the following equation:.

Now consider the following equation:. Thus, HPO 4 2 - is an acid and base together, making it amphoteric. A 50 ml solution of 0. What was the concentration of the HCl? Solution: Since the number of moles of acid equals the number of moles of base at neutralization, the following equation is used to solve for the molarity of HCl:.

In the following acid-base neutralization, 2. First, the number of moles of the acid needs to be calculated. This is done by using the molar mass of HBr to convert 2. Since this is a neutralization reaction, the number of moles of the acid HBr equals the number of moles of the base NaOH at neutralization:.

The molarity of NaOH can now be determined since the amount of moles are found and the volume is given. Convert However, NH 3 does not dissociate in water like the others. Instead, it takes a proton from water and becomes NH 4 while water becomes a hydroxide. Jim Clark Chemguide. Search site Search Search. Go back to previous article. Sign in. The Arrhenius Theory of Acids and Bases In , the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius proposed two specific classifications of compounds; acids and bases.

Note Arrhenius acids are substances which produce hydrogen ions in solution. Arrhenius bases are substances which produce hydroxide ions in solution. Limitations to the Arrhenius Theory The Arrhenius theory has many more limitations than the other two theories. Figure 4. The pH scale shows that substances with a pH greater than 7 are basic and a pH less than 7 are acidic.

Lewis Theory The Lewis theory of acids and bases states that acids act as electron pair acceptors and bases act as electron pair doners.

Figure 2. The Lewis structures of ammonia and boron trifluoride. Figure 3. Neutralization A special property of acids and bases is their ability to neutralize the other's properties. Therefore, the general form of an acid-base reaction is: The following are examples of neutralization reactions: 1. Titrations Titrations are performed with acids and bases to determine their concentrations.

Sample Problems 1. Which of the following compounds is a strong acid? The answer is 3 HNO 3.

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This implies the existence of charged particles that can migrate under the influence of an electric field. Later studies on electrolytic solutions suggested that the properties we associate with acids are due to the presence of an excess of hydrogen ions in the solution. By the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius was able to formulate the first useful theory of acids:.

However, there are substances that do not themselves contain hydrogen, but still yield hydrogen ions when dissolved in water; the hydrogen ions come from the water itself, by reaction with the substance. You will find out in a later section of this lesson that hydrogen ions cannot exist as such in water, but don't panic!

It turns out that chemists still find it convenient to pretend as if they are present, and to write reactions that include them. The name base has long been associated with a class of compounds whose aqueous solutions are characterized by:. Just as an acid is a substance that liberates hydrogen ions into solution, a base yields hydroxide ions when dissolved in water:.

Sodium hydroxide is an Arrhenius base because it contains hydroxide ions. However, other substances which do not contain hydroxide ions can nevertheless produce them by reaction with water, and are therefore also classified as bases. Two classes of such substances are the metal oxides and the hydrogen compounds of certain nonmetals:. Acids and bases react with one another to yield two products: water, and an ionic compound known as a salt.

This kind of reaction is called a neutralization reaction. This "molecular" equation is convenient to write, but we need to re-cast it as a net ionic equation to reveal what is really going on here when the reaction takes place in water, as is almost always the case. If we cancel out the ions that appear on both sides and therefore don't really participate in the reaction , we are left with the net equation.

Confirmation that this equation describes all neutralization reactions that take place in water is provided by experiments indicating that no matter what acid and base are combined, all liberate the same amount of heat In the case of a weak acid, or a base that is not very soluble in water, more than one step might be required. For example, a similar reaction can occur between acetic acid and calcium hydroxide to produce calcium acetate :.

If, on the other hand, we add solid calcium hydroxide to pure liquid acetic acid, the net reaction would include both reactants in their "molecular" forms:. The salt can be recovered as a solid by evaporating the water. Search site Search Search. Go back to previous article. Sign in. Learning Objectives Make sure you thoroughly understand the following essential ideas which have been presented above.

Suggest simple tests you could carry out to determine if an unknown substance is an acid or a base. State the chemical definitions of an acid and a base in terms of their behavior in water. Write the formula of the salt formed when a given acid and base are combined. Acids have long been recognized as a distinctive class of compounds whose aqueous solutions exhibit the following properties: A characteristic sour taste think of lemon juice!

Note: Litmas Litmus is a natural dye found in certain lichens. Note Lavoisier had recently assigned this name to the new gaseous element that Joseph Priestly had discovered a few years earlier as the essential substance that supports combustion.

By the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius was able to formulate the first useful theory of acids: Arrhenius Definition "an acidic substance is one whose molecular unit contains at least one hydrogen atom that can dissociate, or ionize , when dissolved in water, producing a hydrated hydrogen ion and an anion. There are three major classifications of substances known as acids or bases. This theory was developed by Svante Arrhenius in Later, two more sophisticated and general theories were proposed.

The Lewis theory is discussed elsewhere. In , the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius proposed two specific classifications of compounds; acids and bases. When dissolved in an aqueous solution, certain ions were released into the solution.

This process is represented in a chemical equation by adding H 2 O to the reactants side. Formation of the hydronium ion equation:. This theory successfully describes how acids and bases react with each other to make water and salts.

An Arrhenius base is a compound that increases the concentration of OH - ions that are present when added to water. The dissociation is represented by the following equation:. The hydrogen ion in aqueous solution is no more than a proton, a bare nucleus.

Although it carries only a single unit of positive charge, this charge is concentrated into a volume of space that is only about a hundred-millionth as large as the volume occupied by the smallest atom.

Think of a pebble sitting in the middle of a sports stadium! The resulting extraordinarily high charge density of the proton strongly attracts it to any part of a nearby atom or molecule in which there is an excess of negative charge. The Arrhenius theory has many more limitations than the other two theories.

However, this does not explain the weak base ammonia NH 3 which, in the presence of water, releases hydroxide ions into solution, but does not contain OH - itself. Hydrochloric acid is neutralized by both sodium hydroxide solution and ammonia solution. In both cases, you get a colourless solution which you can crystallize to get a white salt - either sodium chloride or ammonium chloride.

These are clearly very similar reactions. The full equations are:. In the sodium hydroxide case, hydrogen ions from the acid are reacting with hydroxide ions from the sodium hydroxide - in line with the Arrhenius theory. However, in the ammonia case, there are no hydroxide ions! You can get around this by saying that, when the ammonia reacts with the water, it is dissolved in to produce ammonium ions and hydroxide ions:. Nevertheless, there are hydroxide ions there, and we can squeeze this into the Arrhenius theory.

However, this same reaction also happens between ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas. In this case, there are not any hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions in solution - because there isn't any solution. The Arrhenius theory wouldn't count this as an acid-base reaction, despite the fact that it is producing the same product as when the two substances were in solution. Because of this shortcoming, later theories sought to better explain the behavior of acids and bases in a new manner.

In this theory, acids are defined as proton donors ; whereas bases are defined as proton acceptors. Consider the following chemical equation:. In this theory, an acid is a substance that can release a proton like in the Arrhenius theory and a base is a substance that can accept a proton.

For a given acid or base, these equilibria are linked by the water dissociation equilibrium:. It can be easily shown that the product of the acid and base dissociation constants K a and K b is K w. All other acids are "weak acids" that incompletely ionized in aqueous solution.

Acids and bases that dissociate completely are said to be strong acids, e. That is, a 1. Conversely, weak acids such as acetic acid CH 3 COOH and weak bases such as ammonia NH 3 dissociate only slightly in water - typically a few percent, depending on their concentration and exist mostly as the undissociated molecules. This is illustrated below for acetic acid and its conjugate base, the acetate anion.

Like acids, strong and weak bases are classified by the extent of their ionization. Strong bases disassociate almost or entirely to completion in aqueous solution. Similar to strong acids, there are very few common strong bases.

Weak bases are molecular compounds where the ionization is not complete. Any acid or base is technically a conjugate acid or conjugate base also; these terms are simply used to identify species in solution i. How does one define acids and bases? In chemistry, acids and bases have been defined differently by three sets of theories. Also, the Lewis theory of acids and bases states that acids are electron pair acceptors while bases are electron pair donors.

Acids and bases can be defined by their physical and chemical observations. This scale is shown by the following formula:. The pH scale is often measured on a 1 to 14 range, but this is incorrect see pH for more details.

Something with a pH less than 7 indicates acidic properties and greater than 7 indicates basic properties. A pH at exactly 7 is neutral. The Lewis theory of acids and bases states that acids act as electron pair acceptors and bases act as electron pair doners. This definition doesn't mention anything about the hydrogen atom at all, unlike the other definitions. It only talks about the transfer of electron pairs. To demonstrate this theory, consider the following example. This is a reaction between ammonia NH 3 and boron trifluoride BF 3.

Since there is no transfer of hydrogen atoms here, it is clear that this is a Lewis acid-base reaction. In this reaction, NH 3 has a lone pair of electrons and BF 3 has an incomplete octet, since boron doesn't have enough electrons around it to form an octet.